RESUME TEORY
CHAPTER 5. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
George Herbert Mead
Early social constructionist who believed that our thoughts, self-concept, and the wider community we live in are created through communication - symbolic interaction. (philosophy professor at University of Chicago for first three decades of 20th century)
Symbolic ineraction
The ongoing use of language and gestures in anticipation of how the other will react; a conversation; the way we learn to interpret the world
Mead believed that the true test of any theory is whether it is useful in solving complex social problems.
Herbert Blumer
Mead's chief disciple/student coined the term "symbolic interactionism"
Symbolic Interactionism is what kind of theory?
Interpretive theory that follows the socio-cultural tradition
According to Mead, human's are unique because we can talk to each other (symbolic interaction)- said it was the most human and humanizing activity that we engage in
Herbert Blumer stated three core principles of symbolic interactionism that deal with meaning, language, and thinking
Blumer's first premise of Meaning
Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things; our interpretation is what counts; once people define a situation as real, it's very real in its consequences
Interactionist position on meaning-making
meaning-making is a community project
Interactionist's idea of causality
humans act on their definition of the situation; stimulus ----> interpretation ---> response
Blumer's second premise of Language
Meaning arises out of the social interaction that people have with each other; meaning isn't inherent in objects nor is it pre-existent in a state of nature - it's negotiated through the use of language; names we use have no logical connection with the object at hand; words we use have default assumptions; significant symbols can be nonverbal and linguistic
What did Mead believe was the basis for human society?
symbolic naming
Interactionists claim the extent of knowing is dependent on the extent of naming
Blumer's third premise of Thinking an individual's interpretation of symbols is modified by his or her own thought processes. Symbolic interactionists describe thinking as inner conversation. mead called this "minding"
George Herbert Mead
Early social constructionist who believed that our thoughts, self-concept, and the wider community we live in are created through communication - symbolic interaction. (philosophy professor at University of Chicago for first three decades of 20th century)
Symbolic ineraction
The ongoing use of language and gestures in anticipation of how the other will react; a conversation; the way we learn to interpret the world
Mead believed that the true test of any theory is whether it is useful in solving complex social problems.
Herbert Blumer
Mead's chief disciple/student coined the term "symbolic interactionism"
Symbolic Interactionism is what kind of theory?
Interpretive theory that follows the socio-cultural tradition
According to Mead, human's are unique because we can talk to each other (symbolic interaction)- said it was the most human and humanizing activity that we engage in
Herbert Blumer stated three core principles of symbolic interactionism that deal with meaning, language, and thinking
Blumer's first premise of Meaning
Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things; our interpretation is what counts; once people define a situation as real, it's very real in its consequences
Interactionist position on meaning-making
meaning-making is a community project
Interactionist's idea of causality
humans act on their definition of the situation; stimulus ----> interpretation ---> response
Blumer's second premise of Language
Meaning arises out of the social interaction that people have with each other; meaning isn't inherent in objects nor is it pre-existent in a state of nature - it's negotiated through the use of language; names we use have no logical connection with the object at hand; words we use have default assumptions; significant symbols can be nonverbal and linguistic
What did Mead believe was the basis for human society?
symbolic naming
Interactionists claim the extent of knowing is dependent on the extent of naming
Blumer's third premise of Thinking an individual's interpretation of symbols is modified by his or her own thought processes. Symbolic interactionists describe thinking as inner conversation. mead called this "minding"
Minding
An inner dialogue used to test alternatives, rehearse actions, and anticipate reactions before responding; self-talk; the pause that's reflective
Mead believed that animals act instinctively and without deliberation - they are unable to think reflectively. Mead's greatest contribution to our understanding of the way we think is his notion that humans have the unique capacity to take the role of the other; he was convinced that thinking is the mental conversation we have with others.
Taking the role of the other
The process of mentally imagining that you are someone else who is viewing you.
Looking-glass self
Mead's concept; the mental image that comes from taking the role of the other; the objective self; me (interactionist's claim this is socially constructed) - mead borrowed the phrase from sociologist Charles Cooley
Mead-Cooley hypothesis claims that "individuals' self- conceptions result from assimilating the judgments of significant others."
Symbolic interactionists are convinced the self is a function of language. without talk, there would be no self-concept
According to Mead, the self is an ongoing process combining the
"I" and the "me"
"I"
The subjective self; the spontaneous driving force that fosters all that is novel, unpredictable, and unorganized in the self. You never know your "I," because once it is known, it becomes your "me"
"Me"
The objective self; the image of self seen when one takes the role of the other. no "me" at birth; it's formed through continual symbolic interaction; seen as the organized society within the individual (according to Mead)
Generalized other
The composite mental image a person has of his or her self based on societal expectations and responses. Shapes how we think and interact within the community.
Society, according to Mead consists of individual actors who make their own choices- society in the making rather than society by previous design
Applications of Symbolic Interactionism
1. creating reality 2. meaningful research 3. generalized other 4. naming 5. self-fulfilling prophecy 6. symbol manipulation
Creating reality
goffman claims we are all involved in a constant negotiation with others to publicly define our identity and the nature of the situation
Mead advocates research through participant observation
Participant observation
A method of adopting the stance of an ignorant yet interested visitor who carefully notes what people say and do in order to discover how they interpret their world.
Name-calling can be devastating because the labels can force us to view ourselves in a warped mirror
Self-fulfilling prophecy
The tendency for our expectations to evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated.
Emmanuel Levinas
european Jewish philosopher; agrees with Mead that the self is socially constructed. Levinas' responsive "I" the self created by the way we respond to others (not the way others respond to us-what Mead believed); consists of both Mead's "I" and "me"
Ethical Echo term used by Levinas; The reminder that we are responsible to take care of each other; I am my brother's keeper. the way each of us meets that obligation shapes our "I"
Face of the "Other"
A human signpost that points to our ethical obligation to care for the other before we care for self.
Critique of Symbolic Interactionism poor objective (scientific) theory bc it doesn't meet scientific standards of prediction and testability; doesn't call for a reform of society; The theory's fluid boundaries, vague concepts, and undisciplined approach don't lend them- selves to an elegant summary; suffers from lack of clarity; may suffer from lack of overstatement
CHAPTER 7. EXPECTANCY VIOLATIONS THEORY
Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT) originally focused on the expectations people have about the _____________ behavior of others.
Nonverbal
The study of a person's use of space is called:
Proxemics
Researcher Edward Hall claimed what four zones defined spatial distances for North Americans?
Intimate, personal, social, and public
Your own workspace and computer is considered:
Primary territory
The city park constitutes:
Public territory
Burgoon and Hale argue that two types of expectancies exist: pre-interactional and interactional. Pre-interactional expectations include:
The skills communicators possess before entering a conversation.
Violations of expectancies have _____________, or the ability to cause people to pay attention to the source of the arousal.
Arousal value
The distance at which one feels discomfort in the presence of another is called:
The threat threshold refers to the positive or negative assessment of an unexpected behavior.
Violation valence
EVT's original focus on personal space relates to which criterion for evaluating theory?
Scope
Created by:
Judee Burgoon (1988)
Edward T. Hall's (1966) work on PROXIMICS:
•Intimate Distance (0 - 18 inches)
•Personal Distance (1.5 - 4 feet)
•Social Distance (4 - 12 feet)
•Public Distance (12 - 25 feet)
Hall argued that effective communicators adjust:
Their nonverbal behavior to conform to the expectations of their communication partners.
Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory:
•Expectations drive human interaction
•Expectations for human behavior are learned
•People make predictions about nonverbal behaviors
Burgoon pointed out people can:
Either conform or violate expectations.
Burgoon argued that sometimes violating the norms/expectations can be:
A superior strategy to conforming. She also realized that these norms differ by culture.
Territoriality:
A person's sense of ownership of an area or object.
Primary territory:
Exclusive domain over an area or object.
Secondary territory:
A person's affiliation with an area or object.
Public territories:
Open spaces for everyone.
When someone violates our expectation in communication:
We may have a negative - or a positive - reaction.
CHAPTER 16. COGNITIVE DISSONACE THEORY
dissonance : discord between behavior and belief
cognitive dissonance
distressing mental state caused by inconsistency between a person's two beliefs or a belief and an action
three hypotheses of Leon Festinger about dissonance
1. selective exposure prevents dissonance
2. post-decision dissonance creates a need for reassurance
3. minimal justification for action induces a shift in attitude
selective exposure
tendency to avoid exposure to info that creates cognitive dissonance because incompatible with current beliefs
post-decision dissonance
strong doubts experienced after making a close-call, important decision difficult to reverse
minimal justification
claim that the best way to stimulate attitude change in others is to offer JUST enough incentive to elicit counterattitudinal behavior (Stanford $1$/20 experiment)
counterattitudinal advocacy
publicly urging others to believe/do something that is opposed to what the advocate actually believes
self-perception theory
claim that we determine our attitudes the same way that outside observers do
CHAPTER 23. DRAMATISM
Dramatism developed by
Kenneth Burke
Dramatism located in...
Rhetorical tradition, somewhat interpretive
Kenneth Burke
Perhaps the most important twentieth-century rhetorician; developed dramatism
Identification
The recognized common ground between speaker and audience, such as physical characteristics, talents, occupations, etc.
Dramatistic Pentad
A tool to analyze how a speaker attempts to get an audience to accept his or her view of reality by using five key elements of the human drama—act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose
Act
The dramatistic term for what was done. Texts that emphasize act suggest realism.
Scene
The dramatistic term for the context for the act. Texts that emphasize scene downplay free will and reflect an attitude of situational determinism.
Agent
The dramatistic term for the person or kind of person who performs the act. Texts that emphasize agent feature idealism.
Agency
The dramatistic term for the means the agent used to do the deed. Texts that emphasize agency demonstrate pragmatism.
Purpose
The dramatistic term for the stated or implied goal of an act. Texts that emphasize purpose suggest the concerns of mysticism.
God Term
The word a speaker uses to which all other positive words are subservient.
Devil Term
The word a speaker uses that sums up all that is regarded as bad, wrong, or evil.
Guilt
Burke's catch-all term for tension, anxiety, embarrassment, shame, disgust, and other noxious feelings intrinsic in the human condition.
Mortification
Confession of guilt and request for forgiveness
Victimage
Scapegoating; the process of naming an external enemy as the source of all personal or public ills.
Dramatism summary
The use of language to create a symbolic drama in which audience and communicator become identified or consubstantial.
An inner dialogue used to test alternatives, rehearse actions, and anticipate reactions before responding; self-talk; the pause that's reflective
Mead believed that animals act instinctively and without deliberation - they are unable to think reflectively. Mead's greatest contribution to our understanding of the way we think is his notion that humans have the unique capacity to take the role of the other; he was convinced that thinking is the mental conversation we have with others.
Taking the role of the other
The process of mentally imagining that you are someone else who is viewing you.
Looking-glass self
Mead's concept; the mental image that comes from taking the role of the other; the objective self; me (interactionist's claim this is socially constructed) - mead borrowed the phrase from sociologist Charles Cooley
Mead-Cooley hypothesis claims that "individuals' self- conceptions result from assimilating the judgments of significant others."
Symbolic interactionists are convinced the self is a function of language. without talk, there would be no self-concept
According to Mead, the self is an ongoing process combining the
"I" and the "me"
"I"
The subjective self; the spontaneous driving force that fosters all that is novel, unpredictable, and unorganized in the self. You never know your "I," because once it is known, it becomes your "me"
"Me"
The objective self; the image of self seen when one takes the role of the other. no "me" at birth; it's formed through continual symbolic interaction; seen as the organized society within the individual (according to Mead)
Generalized other
The composite mental image a person has of his or her self based on societal expectations and responses. Shapes how we think and interact within the community.
Society, according to Mead consists of individual actors who make their own choices- society in the making rather than society by previous design
Applications of Symbolic Interactionism
1. creating reality 2. meaningful research 3. generalized other 4. naming 5. self-fulfilling prophecy 6. symbol manipulation
Creating reality
goffman claims we are all involved in a constant negotiation with others to publicly define our identity and the nature of the situation
Mead advocates research through participant observation
Participant observation
A method of adopting the stance of an ignorant yet interested visitor who carefully notes what people say and do in order to discover how they interpret their world.
Name-calling can be devastating because the labels can force us to view ourselves in a warped mirror
Self-fulfilling prophecy
The tendency for our expectations to evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated.
Emmanuel Levinas
european Jewish philosopher; agrees with Mead that the self is socially constructed. Levinas' responsive "I" the self created by the way we respond to others (not the way others respond to us-what Mead believed); consists of both Mead's "I" and "me"
Ethical Echo term used by Levinas; The reminder that we are responsible to take care of each other; I am my brother's keeper. the way each of us meets that obligation shapes our "I"
Face of the "Other"
A human signpost that points to our ethical obligation to care for the other before we care for self.
Critique of Symbolic Interactionism poor objective (scientific) theory bc it doesn't meet scientific standards of prediction and testability; doesn't call for a reform of society; The theory's fluid boundaries, vague concepts, and undisciplined approach don't lend them- selves to an elegant summary; suffers from lack of clarity; may suffer from lack of overstatement
CHAPTER 7. EXPECTANCY VIOLATIONS THEORY
Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT) originally focused on the expectations people have about the _____________ behavior of others.
Nonverbal
The study of a person's use of space is called:
Proxemics
Researcher Edward Hall claimed what four zones defined spatial distances for North Americans?
Intimate, personal, social, and public
Your own workspace and computer is considered:
Primary territory
The city park constitutes:
Public territory
Burgoon and Hale argue that two types of expectancies exist: pre-interactional and interactional. Pre-interactional expectations include:
The skills communicators possess before entering a conversation.
Violations of expectancies have _____________, or the ability to cause people to pay attention to the source of the arousal.
Arousal value
The distance at which one feels discomfort in the presence of another is called:
The threat threshold refers to the positive or negative assessment of an unexpected behavior.
Violation valence
EVT's original focus on personal space relates to which criterion for evaluating theory?
Scope
Created by:
Judee Burgoon (1988)
Edward T. Hall's (1966) work on PROXIMICS:
•Intimate Distance (0 - 18 inches)
•Personal Distance (1.5 - 4 feet)
•Social Distance (4 - 12 feet)
•Public Distance (12 - 25 feet)
Hall argued that effective communicators adjust:
Their nonverbal behavior to conform to the expectations of their communication partners.
Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory:
•Expectations drive human interaction
•Expectations for human behavior are learned
•People make predictions about nonverbal behaviors
Burgoon pointed out people can:
Either conform or violate expectations.
Burgoon argued that sometimes violating the norms/expectations can be:
A superior strategy to conforming. She also realized that these norms differ by culture.
Territoriality:
A person's sense of ownership of an area or object.
Primary territory:
Exclusive domain over an area or object.
Secondary territory:
A person's affiliation with an area or object.
Public territories:
Open spaces for everyone.
When someone violates our expectation in communication:
We may have a negative - or a positive - reaction.
CHAPTER 16. COGNITIVE DISSONACE THEORY
dissonance : discord between behavior and belief
cognitive dissonance
distressing mental state caused by inconsistency between a person's two beliefs or a belief and an action
three hypotheses of Leon Festinger about dissonance
1. selective exposure prevents dissonance
2. post-decision dissonance creates a need for reassurance
3. minimal justification for action induces a shift in attitude
selective exposure
tendency to avoid exposure to info that creates cognitive dissonance because incompatible with current beliefs
post-decision dissonance
strong doubts experienced after making a close-call, important decision difficult to reverse
minimal justification
claim that the best way to stimulate attitude change in others is to offer JUST enough incentive to elicit counterattitudinal behavior (Stanford $1$/20 experiment)
counterattitudinal advocacy
publicly urging others to believe/do something that is opposed to what the advocate actually believes
self-perception theory
claim that we determine our attitudes the same way that outside observers do
CHAPTER 23. DRAMATISM
Dramatism developed by
Kenneth Burke
Dramatism located in...
Rhetorical tradition, somewhat interpretive
Kenneth Burke
Perhaps the most important twentieth-century rhetorician; developed dramatism
Identification
The recognized common ground between speaker and audience, such as physical characteristics, talents, occupations, etc.
Dramatistic Pentad
A tool to analyze how a speaker attempts to get an audience to accept his or her view of reality by using five key elements of the human drama—act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose
Act
The dramatistic term for what was done. Texts that emphasize act suggest realism.
Scene
The dramatistic term for the context for the act. Texts that emphasize scene downplay free will and reflect an attitude of situational determinism.
Agent
The dramatistic term for the person or kind of person who performs the act. Texts that emphasize agent feature idealism.
Agency
The dramatistic term for the means the agent used to do the deed. Texts that emphasize agency demonstrate pragmatism.
Purpose
The dramatistic term for the stated or implied goal of an act. Texts that emphasize purpose suggest the concerns of mysticism.
God Term
The word a speaker uses to which all other positive words are subservient.
Devil Term
The word a speaker uses that sums up all that is regarded as bad, wrong, or evil.
Guilt
Burke's catch-all term for tension, anxiety, embarrassment, shame, disgust, and other noxious feelings intrinsic in the human condition.
Mortification
Confession of guilt and request for forgiveness
Victimage
Scapegoating; the process of naming an external enemy as the source of all personal or public ills.
Dramatism summary
The use of language to create a symbolic drama in which audience and communicator become identified or consubstantial.
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